Electrostatic steering of thermal emission with active metasurface control of delocalized modes.

We theoretically describe and experimentally demonstrate a graphene-integrated metasurface structure that enables electrically-tunable directional control of thermal emission. This device consists of a dielectric spacer that acts as a Fabry-Perot resonator supporting long-range delocalized modes bounded on one side by an electrostatically tunable metal-graphene metasurface. By varying the Fermi level of the graphene, the accumulated phase of the Fabry-Perot mode is shifted, which changes the direction of absorption and emission at a fixed frequency. We directly measure the frequency- and angle-dependent emissivity of the thermal emission from a fabricated device heated to 250 °C. Our results show that electrostatic control allows the thermal emission at 6.61 µm to be continuously steered over 16°, with a peak emissivity maintained above 0.9. We analyze the dynamic behavior of the thermal emission steerer theoretically using a Fano interference model, and use the model to design optimized thermal steerer structures.

Kaolin as a management alternative for insecticide-resistant navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

The production of almonds and pistachios in California's Central Valley employs insecticides for the management of their primary pest, navel orangeworm. The pyrethroid Bifenthrin is commonly used, and now a strain of Amyelois transitella Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (R347) obtained from Kern County almond orchards with a history of Bifenthrin use has acquired >110-fold resistance toward pyrethroids. One method to improve control is to use additives and spray adjuvants, which are applied simultaneously with an insecticide to increase coverage and/or duration of control. We tested 2 levels of the naturally occurring clay Kaolin as an additive, alone and in combination with either Bifenthrin or the diamide Chlorantraniliprole, to determine if it could reduce feeding damage and decrease survival of pyrethroid-resistant A. transitella on almonds in the laboratory and improve the efficacy of Chlorantraniliprole in the field. Larval performance was measured for the strains R347 and ALM (34.7-fold resistance compared to susceptible lab strain) reared on treated almonds. Strain R347 had 1.9-fold greater survival and caused 1.3-fold more feeding damage than strain ALM across all treatments, although both strains were susceptible to the combination of Kaolin + insecticide. Kaolin synergized Bifenthrin for R347, decreasing survival by 10.0%. Kaolin did not reduce feeding damage for either strain. When combined with insecticide, feeding damage was similar to insecticide alone, but the addition of Kaolin to the insecticide generally decreased survival more than the insecticide alone. In the field, the addition of Kaolin to Chlorantraniprole during application helped retain activity against this challenging pest.

Nut factors associated with navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) damage to pistachio (Pistacia vera) in California (2007-2017) and implication for control.

Amyelois transitella is the primary pest of pistachios in California. The first A. transitella outbreak of the twenty-first century occurred in 2007 and a total of five outbreaks occurred between 2007 and 2017 (total insect damage >1%). This study used processor information to identify the nut factors associated with the outbreaks. Processor grade sheets were used to explore the relationship between the variables time of harvest, percent nut split, percent nut dark staining, percent nut shell damage, and percent adhering hull for Low Damage (82,537 loads) and High Damage years, (92,307 loads). Total insect damage (±SD) for the Low Damage years averaged 0.005 ± 0.01 and in High Damage years was three times higher, 0.015 ± 0.02. In Low Damage years the strongest correlation was between total insect damage and two variables, percent adhering hull and dark stain (0.25, 0.23) while in High Damage years the correlation between total insect damage and percent dark stain was the highest (0.32) followed by percent adhering hull (0.19). The linkage of these nut factors to insect damage suggests that outbreak prevention depends on early identification of premature hull split/breakdown in addition to the traditional emphasis on treating the standing population of A. transitella.

Augmenting sanitation with insecticides to improve control of navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in California tree nuts.

BACKGROUND: Sanitation, consisting of eliminating unharvested nuts (mummies) that serve as both harborage and food source for navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella), is the foundation for control in almonds and pistachios. Sometimes sanitation is ineffective and needs to be augmented. Trials in almonds and pistachios were conducted early October 2005-2006 to determine if insecticides applied postharvest could augment sanitation, and in almonds late March to early May 2016-2020 to establish their duration of control. RESULTS: Early October sprays reduced adult emergence by as much as 81.5% in pistachios, but reduction was only 32.4% in almonds. Trapping before almond hull split revealed that 55% of adult emergence occurred between 15 April and 1 June, indicating that an insecticide with a six week duration of control could reduce successful oviposition and neonate establishment. Five insecticides applied from late March to early May belonging to four Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) groups decreased survival for at least six weeks, and some lasted as long as 10 weeks. By contrast, the duration of control in contact bioassays was far shorter. CONCLUSION: Insecticides applied from late March to early May successfully reduced the survival of A. transitella in almond mummies for as long as 10 weeks postapplication, and there was a positive relationship between reduction in survival and kernel damage. If these insecticides are applied during mid- to late April, postbloom and before hull split, they can substantially eliminate almond mummies as a resource for 55% of the spring flight of A. transitella.

Differential regulation of cytochrome P450 genes associated with biosynthesis and detoxification in bifenthrin-resistant populations of navel orangewom (Amyelois transitella).

Pyrethroid resistance was first reported in 2013 for the navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella, but the genetic underpinnings of pyrethroid resistance are unknown. We investigated the role of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) belonging to the CYP3 and CYP4 clans using colonies derived from individuals collected in 2016 from almond orchards in two counties. One colony (ALM) originated from an almond orchard in Madera County with no reported pyrethroid resistance and the second colony (R347) originated from the same Kern County orchard where pyrethroid resistance was first reported. We used high-throughput quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analyses of 65 P450s in the CYP3 and CYP4 clans of A. transitella to identify P450s induced by bifenthrin and associated with pyrethroid resistance. Nine P450s were constitutively overexpressed in R347 compared to ALM, including CYP6AE54 (11.7-fold), belonging to a subfamily associated with metabolic pesticide detoxification in Lepidoptera and CYP4G89 (33-fold) belonging to a subfamily associated with cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) synthesis and resistance via reduced pesticide penetrance. Cuticular hydrocarbons analysis revealed that R347 produced twice as many total CHCs in the egg and adult stages as ALM. Topical toxicity bioassays for R347 determined that egg mortality was reduced at low bifenthrin concentrations and larval mortality was reduced at high concentrations of bifenthrin compared to ALM. Our discovery of both changes in metabolism and production of CHCs for R347 have implications for the possible decreased efficacy of other classes of insecticide used to control this insect. The threat of widespread pyrethroid resistance combined with the potential for cross-resistance to develop through the mechanism of reduced penetrance warrants developing management strategies that facilitate insecticide passage across the cuticle.

Selective Sweeps in a Nutshell: The Genomic Footprint of Rapid Insecticide Resistance Evolution in the Almond Agroecosystem.

Among the most familiar forms of human-driven evolution on ecological time scales is the rapid acquisition of resistance to pesticides by insects. Since the widespread adoption of synthetic organic insecticides in the mid-twentieth century, over 500 arthropod species have evolved resistance to at least one insecticide. Efforts to determine the genetic bases of insecticide resistance have historically focused on individual loci, but the availability of genomic tools has facilitated the screening of genome-wide characteristics. We resequenced three contemporary populations of the navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella), the principal pest of almond orchards in California, differing in bifenthrin resistance status to examine insecticide-induced changes in the population genomic landscape of this species. We detected an exceptionally large region with virtually no polymorphisms, extending to up to 1.3 Mb in the resistant population. This selective sweep includes genes associated with pyrethroid and DDT resistance, including a cytochrome P450 gene cluster and the gene encoding the voltage-gated sodium channel para. Moreover, the sequence along the sweep is nearly identical in the genome assembled from a population founded in 1966, suggesting that the foundation for insecticide resistance may date back a half-century, when California's Central Valley experienced massive area-wide applications of DDT for pest control.

Spray drift mitigation using opposing synchronized air-blast sprayers.

BACKGROUND: Pesticide drift is a serious environmental and safety concern that affects all of US agriculture. A number of mitigation techniques to reduce pesticide drift have been recommended by industry, academic and government agencies. These techniques are very costly or reduce the efficacy of the pest control product and have not been implemented by US agriculture. RESULTS: When using a novel spray technique (Air-in), pesticide drift was significantly reduced by between 53% and 99% at 7.6 m from the orchard drip line when compared to the grower standard. This technique not only reduced pesticide drift, but also maintained or improved the amount of pesticide residue deposited (by 0.7-2.6-fold) and the percentage pesticide coverage (by 1.0-1.4-fold) with different air-blast speed sprayers on almond, walnut and pistachio. CONCLUSION: The Air-in technique shows great promise in reducing pesticide drift while maintaining or improving pesticide coverage with minimal cost to the grower.

Evaluating insecticide coverage and determining its effect on the duration of control for navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in California almonds.

BACKGROUND: Insecticide application is essential to control navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) in California almonds (Prunus dulcis), but coverage is challenging. Laboratory and field trials were conducted from 2014 to 2017 to quantify insecticide deposition and duration of control. RESULTS: In the laboratory for filter paper, photolysis reduced the contact toxicity of bifenthrin, and its half-life was 6.2 days. For chlorantraniliprole applied in the field, there was 87-94% less insecticide deposited in the almond suture, the most vulnerable part of the nut, than on the hull. For chlorantraniliprole, adjuvant choice (alcohol ethoxylate versus mineral oil) affected both initial insecticide deposition and half-life. Chlorantraniliprole degradation was greater at 6.1 m than at 3 m for both adjuvants assessed, whereas contact mortality was similar at both heights for the alcohol ethoxylate adjuvant. CONCLUSION: The combination of photolysis and differential distribution of insecticide on the nut can account for the variable control observed in the field. This was particularly problematic in the upper canopy and adjuvant choice affected deposition and insecticide degradation. Less than 1% of the insecticide in the tank was deposited on the almond suture. These results demonstrating the fraction of the insecticide in the sprayer tank deposited on the nut target, combined with reduced coverage in the upper canopy are also applicable to the control of A. transitella in pistachio (Pistacia vera) and walnut (Juglans regia) orchards. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluating insecticide coverage in almond and pistachio for control of navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

BACKGROUND: Insecticide application is essential to control navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) in California almond and pistachios. Coverage is difficult because of tree height and applicator practices. Studies were conducted to characterize insecticide deposition by both ground and air, and to develop alternatives to the use of water-sensitive cards to assess spray coverage. RESULTS: We used almond challenge bioassays to demonstrate that insecticide application failed first in the upper canopy (5.2-6.1 m) when application speed exceeded 2.9 kph. In pistachios, we used filter paper and insecticide extraction from hulls to demonstrate that deposition increased with application volume. Typically, in ground applications, coverage decreased with height, whereas for application by air, coverage was greatest at the top of the canopy (6 m) and decreased as the spray penetrated the canopy. In the best ground applications there was no loss over height. We were able to demonstrate a dose-response relationship for methoxyfenozide using contact toxicity bioassays. CONCLUSION: Coverage was best at or below the recommended speed of 3.2 kph and improved when water volume increased. There was a 50% loss in insecticide efficacy at the height of 4-4.8 m; we suggest that future monitoring concentrate on this portion of the canopy. The best ground application provided uniform deposition throughout the canopy, whereas the applications by air were most effective in the upper canopy. The use of filter paper can provide information for chemical deposition and enable contact toxicity bioassays, whereas water-sensitive paper cannot do this. Published 2018. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Accelerated Development and Toxin Tolerance of the Navel Orangeworm Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the Presence of Aspergillus flavus.

The navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) and the fungus Aspergillus flavus constitute a facultative mutualism and pest complex in tree nut and fruit orchards in California. The possibility exists that the broad detoxification capabilities of A. flavus benefit its insect associate by metabolizing toxicants, including hostplant phytochemicals and pesticides. We examined this hypothesis by conducting laboratory bioassays to assess growth rates and survivorship of pyrethroid-resistant (R347) and susceptible (CPQ) larval strains on potato dextrose agar diet containing almond meal with and without two furanocoumarins, xanthotoxin and bergapten, found in several hostplants, and with and without two insecticides, bifenthrin and spinetoram, used in almond and pistachio orchards. Additionally, fungi were incubated in liquid diets containing the test chemicals, and extracts of these diets were added to almond potato dextrose agar (PDA) diets and fed to larvae to evaluate the ability of the fungus to metabolize these chemicals. Larvae consuming furanocoumarin-containing diet experienced higher mortality than individuals on unamended diets, but adding A. flavus resulted in up to 61.7% greater survival. Aspergillus flavus in the diet increased development rate > two-fold when furanocoumarins were present, demonstrating fungal enhancement of diet quality. Adding extracts of liquid diets containing xanthotoxin and fungus decreased mortality compared to xanthotoxin alone. On diets containing bifenthrin and spinetoram, however, mortality increased. These results support the hypothesis that A. flavus enhances navel orangeworm performance and contributes to detoxification of xenobiotics. Among practical implications of our findings, this mutualistic association should be considered in designing chemical management strategies for these pests.

Orientation of Navel Orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Larvae and Adults Toward Volatiles Associated With Almond Hull Split and Aspergillus flavus.

The navel orangeworm Amyelois transitella (Walker, 1863, Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a pest of California tree nuts, is associated with the fungus Aspergillus flavus, and previous research suggests these species are facultative mutualists. Because navel orangeworm larvae exhibit improved performance on diets containing this fungus, orientation toward hostplants infected with A. flavus may be adaptive. We conducted behavioral assays to determine if larvae respond to chemical cues produced by almond hull split and fungal infection. In petri dish arenas, larvae showed a preference for 1-octen-3-ol and 2-phenylethanol, volatiles characteristic of damaged plants, as well as methanolic extracts of almond meal with 1-octen-3-ol and the fungal volatile conophthorin. In contrast, larvae displayed aversion to ethyl benzoate, an inhibitor of fungal growth. When we assessed oviposition behavior relative to substrates with and without A. flavus, females laid almost twice as many eggs near inoculated surfaces. Moreover, an average of 63% of eggs laid near inoculated substrates were fertilized, compared with 24% of eggs near uninoculated sites. We also tested the hypothesis that unfertilized eggs are laid on nutrient-poor substrates to provide supplemental nutrition for larvae in an assay comparing larval survivorship in the presence and absence of unfertilized eggs. Neonates given eggs survived 2.5 times longer on an average than unprovisioned neonates (208.8 h vs. 85.2 h), indicating that this species may compensate with cannibalism for oviposition on lower-quality food sources. We conclude that larvae orient to probable host plant and fungal volatiles associated with hull split and document a possible strategy for larvae to establish on low-quality hosts.

Impact of Pesticide Resistance on Toxicity and Tolerance of Hostplant Phytochemicals in Amyelois Transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

For some polyphagous insects, adaptation to phytochemically novel plants can enhance resistance to certain pesticides, but whether pesticide resistance expands tolerance to phytochemicals has not been examined. Amyelois transitella Walker (navel orangeworm) is an important polyphagous pest of nut and fruit tree crops in California. Bifenthrin resistance, partially attributable to enhanced cytochrome P450 (P450)-mediated detoxification, has been reported in an almond-infesting population exposed to intense pesticide selection. We compared the toxicity of bifenthrin and three phytochemicals-chlorogenic acid, and the furanocoumarins xanthotoxin and bergapten-to three strains of A. transitella: pyrethroid-resistant R347 (maintained in the laboratory for ∼10 generations), fig-derived FIG (in the laboratory for ∼25 generations), and CPQ-a laboratory strain derived from almonds ∼40 years ago). Whereas both Ficus carica (fig) and Prunus dulcis (almond) contain chlorogenic acid, furanocoumarins occur only in figs. Both R347 and FIG exhibited 2-fold greater resistance to the three phytochemicals compared with CPQ; surprisingly, bifenthrin resistance was highest in FIG. Piperonyl butoxide, a P450 synergist, increased toxicity of all three phytochemicals only in CPQ, implicating alternate tolerance mechanisms in R347 and FIG. To test the ability of the strains to utilize novel hostplants directly, we compared survival on diets containing seeds of Wisteria sinensis and Prosopis pallida, two non-host Fabaceae species; survival of FIG was highest and survival of R347 was lowest. Our results suggest that, while P450-mediated pesticide resistance enhances tolerance of certain phytochemicals in this species, it is only one of multiple biochemical adaptations associated with acquiring novel hostplants.

Larval Preference and Performance of Amyelois transitella (Navel Orangeworm, Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Relation to the Fungus Aspergillus flavus.

The navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker), is a polyphagous pest of California nut crops and is responsible for extensive losses in the United States. It directly damages crops by feeding and contaminating nuts with frass and webbing and vectors saprophytic fungi that infect crops. The navel orangeworm is commonly associated with Aspergillus species, including the toxigenic Aspergillus flavus, which causes crop loss by producing carcinogens, including aflatoxin B1. This lepidopteran-fungus association is the most economically serious pest complex in Central Valley orchards, and evidence indicates that this relationship is mutualistic. We assessed preference and performance of navel orangeworm larvae associated with A. flavus in behavioral bioassays in which neonates were allowed to orient within arenas to media with or without fungal tissue, and performance bioassays in which larvae were reared with and without A. flavus on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and a semidefined almond PDA diet to evaluate effects on development and pupal weight. Navel orangeworm larvae were attracted to A. flavus and developed faster in its presence, indicating a nutritional benefit to the caterpillars. Larvae reached pupation ∼33% faster on diet containing A. flavus, and pupal weights were ∼18% higher for males and ∼13% higher for females on this diet. Our findings indicate that A. flavus plays an important role in larval orientation and development on infected hosts. The preference-performance relationship between navel orangeworms and Aspergillus flavus is consistent with a facultative mutualism that has broad implications for pest management efforts and basic understanding of Lepidoptera-plant interactions.

Effect of Piperonyl Butoxide on the Toxicity of Four Classes of Insecticides to Navel Orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the navel orangeworm, is a highly polyphagous economic pest of almond, pistachio, and walnut crops in California. Increasing demand for these crops and their rising economic value has resulted in substantial increases of insecticide applications to reduce damage to acceptable levels. The effects of piperonyl butoxide (PBO), a methylenedioxyphenyl compound that can act as a synergist by inhibiting cytochrome P450-mediated detoxification on insecticide metabolism by A. transitella, were examined in a series of feeding bioassays with first-instar A. transitella larvae from a laboratory strain. PBO, however, can have a variety of effects on metabolism, including inhibition of glutathione-S-transferases and esterases and induction of P450s. In our study, PBO synergized the toxicity of acetamiprid, λ-cyhalothrin, and spinosad, suggesting possible involvement of P450s in their detoxification. In contrast, PBO interacted antagonistically with the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos, reducing its toxicity, an effect consistent with inhibition of P450-mediated bioactivation of this pesticide. The toxicity of the anthranilic diamide insecticide chlorantraniliprole was not altered by PBO, suggestive of little or no involvement of P450-mediated metabolism in its detoxification. Because a population of navel orangeworm in Kern County, CA, has already acquired resistance to the pyrethroid insecticide bifenthrin through enhanced P450 activity, determining the effect of adding a synergist such as PBO on detoxification of all insecticide classes registered for use in navel orangeworm management can help to develop rotation practices that may delay resistance acquisition or to implement alternative management practices where resistance is likely to evolve.

Mechanism of Resistance Acquisition and Potential Associated Fitness Costs in Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Exposed to Pyrethroid Insecticides.

The polyphagous navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is the most destructive pest of nut crops, including almonds and pistachios, in California orchards. Management of this insect has typically been a combination of cultural controls and insecticide use, with the latter increasing substantially along with the value of these commodities. Possibly associated with increased insecticide use, resistance has been observed recently in navel orangeworm populations in Kern County, California. In studies characterizing a putatively pyrethroid-resistant strain (R347) of navel orangeworm, susceptibility to bifenthrin and ß-cyfluthrin was compared with that of an established colony of susceptible navel orangeworm. Administration of piperonyl butoxide and S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate in first-instar feeding bioassays with the pyrethroids bifenthrin and ß-cyfluthrin produced synergistic effects and demonstrated that cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and carboxylesterases contribute to resistance in this population. Resistance is therefore primarily metabolic and likely the result of overexpression of specific cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and carboxylesterase genes. Resistance was assessed by median lethal concentration (LC50) assays and maintained across nine generations in the laboratory. Life history trait comparisons between the resistant strain and susceptible strain revealed significantly lower pupal weights in resistant individuals reared on the same wheat bran-based artificial diet across six generations. Time to second instar was greater in the resistant strain than the susceptible strain, although overall development time was not significantly different between strains. Resistance was heritable and may have an associated fitness cost, which could influence the dispersal and expansion of resistant populations in nut-growing areas in California.

Measure your septa release ratios: pheromone release ratio variability affected by rubber septa and solvent.

The type of solvent and the volume used to load pheromone components onto rubber septa had significant effects on pheromone release ratios, the variability of those release ratios, and the recoverability of the volatile components during subsequent extraction with hexane. Volatile release ratios of synthetic Oriental fruit moth (OFM) pheromone and additional volatile compounds were determined using a gas chromatograph column as a volatile trap for rapid (≤1 hr) analysis from individual rubber septa. Volatile compound solutions were prepared in hexane, pentane, CH2Cl2, and methyl tert-butyl ether, and a 10, 33, or 100 µl aliquot of each solution was applied to rubber septa. Septa loaded with 100 µl of CH2Cl2 emitted significantly (P < 0.05) higher alcohol: acetate (OH:Ac) ratios than septa loaded with the other solvents, which were all similar. Release ratios of the alcohol and acetate components of the OFM pheromone components were assessed over a 3 week period using septa loaded with each solvent. Regardless of loading solvent, the OFM OH:Ac ratios declined logarithmically over 3 weeks; however, the decay slope from septa loaded with CH2Cl2 solutions was different from those of the other three solvents, which were nearly all the same. A high variability in OH:Ac release ratios was measured overall, regardless of the solvent used or the volume it was applied in. Four compounds of near-equal mass: 1-dodecanol, 1-dodecanal, methyl decanoate, and tridecane emitted different release ratios dependent on the solvent, hexane or CH2Cl2, with which a septum was loaded. The more polar and the greater the mass of the test compound, the slower it was emitted from a septum regardless of solvent. These combined results plus comparisons to earlier reports, suggest that researchers should empirically assess the release ratios from septa to be used in bioassays rather than just reporting the type of septum, ratios of compounds applied and solvent used to prepare them.

Spread of Aspergillus flavus by Navel Orangeworm (Amyelois transitella) on Almond.

Navel orangeworm (NOW) damage to almond is correlated with increased incidence of aflatoxin contamination caused by Aspergillus flavus. However, no reports demonstrate a causative relationship between NOW feeding and A. flavus infection. To demonstrate the potential of NOW to act as a vector of A. flavus on almond, NOW eggs were dusted with A. flavus and incubated in microchambers adjacent to but not touching agar plates or almond kernels. Following egg hatch, A. flavus colonies developed on agar along trails left by NOW larvae. Almond kernels damaged with A. flavus-carrying NOW showed higher incidence of A. flavus colonization and aflatoxin contamination than control treatments. Interestingly, levels of aflatoxin in NOW-damaged, A. flavus-infected almond were significantly higher than control treatments, even in the absence of visible fungal growth. Commercial almond orchards had a relatively low level of contamination with Aspergillus section Flavi in spring and early summer and a high level during summer, corresponding with the higher level of NOW infestation of the crop. Our study demonstrates that NOW is capable of vectoring A. flavus to almond, and that monitoring and sorting of almond kernels for insect damage is warranted to limit aflatoxin contamination potential both before and after harvesting.

Field efficacy and application timing of methoxyfenozide, a reduced-risk treatment for control of navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in almond.

Large-scale field efficacy trials of methoxyfenozide (Intrepid), a reduced-risk molting agonist insecticide, were conducted in 2004 and 2005 in an orchard containing 'Nonpareil' and 'Sonora almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb] located in Kern County, CA. Methoxyfenozide applied one to three times, the organophosphate phosmet (Imidan) alone or in combination with methoxyfenozide, or the pyrethroid permethrin (Perm-Up) were tested for efficacy against the primary lepidopteran pest navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and three other lepidopteran pests of almond: oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck); oblique-banded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris); and peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zeller. Two or three applications of methoxyfenozide (bracketing hull split or spring plus bracketing hull split) were more effective than a single hull split application of phosmet, phosmet combined with permethrin, or methoxyfenozide. In these trials, a spring application followed by a posthull split application was as effective as the applications bracketing hull split. Navel orangeworm accounted for > 60% of the total damage, whereas oriental fruit moth and peach twig borer were the dominant secondary pests. In experiments conducted in 2010 to assess the direct toxicity of methoxyfenozide to navel orangeworm eggs under field conditions, exposure to methoxyfenozide reduced survival by 96-99%. We conclude that this reduced-risk insecticide is effective, although its efficacy is maximized with more than one well-timed application.

Effects of a naturally occurring and a synthetic synergist on toxicity of three insecticides and a phytochemical to navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).

The navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is the most destructive lepidopteran pest of almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb] and pistachios (Pistacia vera L.) in California and is a serious problem in figs (Ficus carica L.) and walnuts (Juglans spp.). In addition to direct damage, larval feeding leaves nuts vulnerable to infection by Aspergillus spp., fungi that produce toxic aflatoxins. A potentially safe and sustainable approach for managing navel orangeworm in orchards may be to use natural essential oil synergists to interfere with this insect's ability to detoxify insecticides and phytochemicals. We tested the effects of a naturally occurring plant-derived chemical, myristicin, and a synthetic inhibitor of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), piperonyl butoxide, on the toxicity of three insecticides (alpha-cypermethrin, tau-fluvalinate, and methoxyfenozide [Intrepid]) and a phytochemical (xanthotoxin) to A. transitella. Piperonyl butoxide significantly synergized alpha-cypermethrin and tau-fluvalinate, whereas myristicin synergized only alpha-cypermethrin. Piperonyl butoxide synergized the toxicity of xanthotoxin as early as 72 h after exposure, whereas myristicin synergized xanthotoxin after 120 h. In view of these findings and the limited availability of environmentally safe synthetic insecticides for sustainable management, particularly in organic orchards, myristicin is a potential field treatment in combination with insecticides to reduce both navel orangeworm survival and aflatoxin contamination of nuts. In addition, this study demonstrates that in A. transitella the insect growth regulator methoxyfenozide is not detoxified by P450s.

Variable developmental rate and survival of navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) on pistachio.

A series of laboratory and field studies were conducted using two lines of navel orangeworm, reared on different stages of new crop and mummy pistachios, Pistacia vera L. This study demonstrated the potential importance of malformed pistachios (pea splits) to the population dynamics of navel orangeworm, because these nuts, which are available as early as two months before mature nuts, supported navel orangeworm development and survival. Overall, the developmental rate on new crop pistachios is fastest on mature nuts, 422.3 +/- 123 degree-days (DD, degrees C), but other factors such as exposure to insecticide residue also sped development, although survival decreased. Development took the longest on unharvested nuts (mummies) dried at 90 degrees C for 24 h, 2664.7 +/- 131.4 DD. In most trials development was variable and two generations could develop at the fastest rate before the slowest individual completed development, which in turn calls into question the concept of discrete generations. Generally, survival was highest on mature pistachios and other stages of new crop nut and lowest on mummies collected in May. Survival was also higher on the new varieties 'Lost Hills' and 'Golden Hills' (24.7 and 32.0%, respectively) than on the most extensively planted variety 'Kerman' (13.3%). In our trials, both the rate of development and survival were dependent on nut stage, age, variety, and quality, indicating that pistachios, like almonds, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D. A. Webb, are a dynamic rather than a static nutrient source for navel orangeworm.